Study Questions Exam 4
Embryonic Development of the CNS
1. Which region of the embryo is involved in CNS (brain & spinal cord) development? Define: neural tube; neural plate.
2. What region(s) of the brain develops from the following embryonic regions: forebrain; hindbrain; midbrain.
Brain Organization, Protection & Nourishment
3. Identify the major regions of the brain and the subdivisions of each.
4. Identify the major blood vessels serving the brain.
5. What is the blood-brain barrier? What is its function? What is it an ineffective barrier against?
6. Identify the 3 major layers of the cranial meninges. Identify the capillaries that produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
7. Where does CSF circulate (note specific regions in brain/spinal cord)? Identify the ciliated cells that circulate CSF.
8. Identify the major ventricles of the brain and their locations.
Brain Anatomy & Physiology
9. Identify the 3 major regions of the brain stem and the relative location of each. In which region of the brain stem do tracts cross over from one side of the brain to the other before exiting at the spinal cord?
10. Identify the major structural regions of the midbrain and the general function of each.
11. What is the function of the pons (what does pons mean)?
12. What general types of activities are regulated by the medulla oblongata?
13. Where is the reticular formation located (generally)? What is its general function?
14. Where is the cerebellum located? What is the function of the cerebellum? Define: arbor vitae; vermis
15. Identify the major regions of the diencephalon and the relative location of each.
16. What is the function of the thalamus? What is the intermediate mass of the thalamus?
17. Give the general function & location of: mammilary body; optic chiasma; infundibulum.
18. What is the major function of the hypothalamus? Give some examples.
19. Give the general function & location of: pineal gland; choroid plexus.
20. Identify the 3 major regions of the cerebrum. Describe the arrangement of gray matter and white matter in the spinal cord.
21. Define: convolutions; gyri; sulci.
22. Identify the location of: longitudinal fissure; transcerse fissure; central sulcus; lateral sulcus.
23. Identify the 5 lobes of the cerebral hemispheres.
24. Give the general function of the cerebral white matter. Define: commissures; association fibers; projection fibers.
25. What is the general function of the basal nuclei? Identify the major nuclei.
26. Give the general function & location of the limbic system. Identify the function of the: amygdala; cingulate gyrus; hippocampus.
27. Where is the cerebral cortex located & what is its function? What are Brodmannšs areas? What is the general function of: motor areas; sensory areas; association areas?
28. Give the general function & location of the following sensory areas: primary somatosensory cortex; somatosensory association cortex.
29. Give the general function & location of the following sensory areas: visual areas; auditory areas; olfactory areas; gustatory cortex; vestibular cortex. Differentiate between primary cortical areas & association areas.
30. Give the general function & location of the following motor areas: primary motor cortex; premotor cortex; Brocašs area.
31. Give the general function & location of the following association areas: prefrontal cortex; general interpretation area; visceral association area.
32. Identify 2 major language areas & distinguish between the functionality & location of each.
33. What is meant by lateralization? What activities/functions are controlled by the: left hemisphere; right hemisphere?
Higher Mental Functions
34. Define: electroencephalogram (EEG); alpha waves; beta waves; theta waves; delta waves. What is epilepsy?
35. What are the 2 major types of sleep & what generally occurs during each type? When does dreaming (typical vs. nightmares) occur?
36. Where in the brain does most memory processing occur (general & specific location).
37. Define: short-term memory; long-term memory. What types of factors enhance storage of long-term memory?
38. Define: declarative memory; procedural memory; anterograde amnesia; retrograde amnesia.
39. Trace the general memory storage pathway in the brain.
40. Identify the protective coverings of the spinal cord. Identify the 3 layers of the spinal meninges and indicate the relative location of each. Define: denticulate ligament.
41. Where is the cerebrospinal fluid formed & what is its function.
42. Define: cervical enlargement; lumbar enlargement.
43. Define: conus medullaris; filum terminale; cauda equina.
44. Define: spinal nerve; ventral root; dorsal root; dorsal root ganglion.
45. Describe the arrangement of gray matter and white matter in the spinal cord.
46. Identify the 3 regions of the spinal cord gray matter. What types of neurons or neuron components are located within each region?
47. Define: anterior median fissure; posterior median sulcus; gray commissure; central canal.
48. Identify the 3 regions of the spinal cord white matter. Identify the major ascending and descending tracts & indicate their major function.
49. Which white matter tracts are sensory? Which white matter tracts are motor? Be able to recognize specific tracts as ascending/descending/sensory/motor.
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System & Reflex Activity
Sensation
50. Define the following classes of sensory receptors by stimulus type: mechanoreceptors; thermoreceptors; photoreceptors; chemoreceptors; nociceptors.
51. Define the following classes of sensory receptors by location: exteroreceptors; interoreceptors; proprioceptors.
52. Define the following classes of sensory receptors by structure: simple receptors; complex receptors; free dendritic nerve endings; encapsulated nerve endings. Give an example of each type.
53. Describe the 3 levels of organization of the somatosensory system.
54. What is meant by adaptation of sensory receptors? What types of receptors generally do not adapt?
55. Identify the role of the following neurons involved in circuit level processing: first-order neurons; second-order neurons; third-order neurons.
56. Outline the pathway & general sensory information transmitted by the following ascending pathways: posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway; anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway; spinocerebellar tracts.
57. Identify the role of the following in somatic motor pathways: local circuit neurons; upper motor neurons; basal nuclai; cerebellum.
58. Identify are the direct motor pathways & give the general function of each.
59. Identify are the indirect motor pathways & give the general function of each.
Nerves & Associated Ganglia
60. Define: endoneurium; perineurium; epineurium.
61. Define: sensory nerve; motor nerve; mixed nerve. How is each related to the spinal cord/CNS?
62. What are the 2 major classes of peripheral nerves?
Reflex Activity
63. Define: somatic reflex; autonomic (visceral) reflex (& effectors served by each).
64. Outline a spinal reflex arc, from sensory receptor to effector.
65. Define: monosynaptic reflex; polysynaptic reflex; ipsalateral reflex; contralateral reflex.
66. Define/describe: stretch reflex; tendon reflex; flexor (withdrawal) reflex; crossed extensor reflex. Give an example of each.
Spinal & Cranial Nerves
67. How many pairs of spinal nerves are there? Indicate the number of spinal nerves in each region of the spinal cord.
68. Identify the spinal nerves associated with the: cervical plexus; brachial plexus; lumbar plexus; sacral plexus.
69. Identify the major peripheral nerve(s) associated with the: cervical plexus; brachial plexus; lumbar plexus; sacral plexus.
70. Identify the name and function (specific & sensory/motor) of the 12 cranial nerves. This will involve several questions on the test.
71. What are the basic effects on the body of activation of the: sympathetic ANS division, parasympathetic ANS division?
72. Distinguish between the somatic & autonomic nervous systems with respect to: effectors, # of motor neurons to effector, & neurotransmitters used.
73. Identify the cranial &/or spinal nerves that are components of the: sympathetic division of the ANS; parasympathetic division of the ANS.
74. Describe the function of the cranial nerves associated with the parasympathetic division of the ANS.
75. Identify the major ganglia associated with the sympathetic division of the ANS and the tissues served by each.
76. Identify the relative ganglia location & fiber length for pre- & post-ganglionic neurons in the sympathetic & parasympathetic ANS divisions.
77. Identify the neurotransmitter used by pre- & postgangionic neurons in the sympathetic & parasympathetic ANS divisions. Are there any exceptions?
78. Identify the receptors used by: acetylcholine; norepinephrine. For each, is the response generally stimulatory or inhibitory.
79. For neurotransmitter activity, describe the effect of: agonists; antagonists.
80. Which tissues are innervated by the sympathetic division & not the parasympathetic division of the ANS (unique roles of the sympathetic division)?
81. Describe a visceral (autonomic) refllex. How does it differ from a somatic reflex?
82. Identify the major control centers in the brain for regulation of the ANS & the function of each.
Olfaction: Sense of Smell
83. Where is the olfactory epithelium located? Describe the 3 major cell types found there.
84. Give the location & a brief description of the olfactory receptor cells. What is the life span of these cells (and are they replaced)?
85. Describe the activation of the olfactory receptors (how do gaseous odors activate these cells)?
86. Detail the pathway to the brain for sensory detection of smell. Where is the cortical area for processing this information?
Taste Buds & the Sense of Taste
87. Where are the taste buds located (generally & specifically)? How many tase buds are there in an adult?
88. List the 4 types of papillae, and for each indicate: the general location; the number of taste buds (if present); the taste stimuli generally detected by taste buds within each papilla.
89. List the 3 types of cells present in a taste bud and give the general function of each. What type of cells are the gustatory receptor cells, and how does this compare with other sensory receptors?
90. Indicate the 4 general types of tastes sensed by tase buds, and the portion of the tongue containing taste buds sensitive to each.
91. List the 3 cranial nerves that transmit taste stimuli and indicate the location of tase buds that stimulate each.
92. Detail the pathway to the brain for sensory detection of taste. Where is the cortical area for processing this information?
The Eye & Vision
93. What is the function of the eyelids (opening & closing)? Identify the muscles controlling opening & closing of the eyelids.
94. Define: conjunctiva; bulbar conjunctiva; palepbral conjunctiva.
95. Define: lacrimal apparatus; lacrimal gland. What are the ajor components of tears? What is the function od tears? Where do lacrimal secretions travel from the eyes?
96. Identify the 6 extrinsic eye muscles and the cranial nerve controlling each.
97. Identify the 3 layers of the wall of the eyeball and the relative location of each.
98. Give the location of the: sclera; cornea. Which layer contains these structures? What is the composition of the cornea.
99. Give the location & function of: choroid; ciliary body; iris; pupil. Which layer contains these structures?
100.Identify the 2 layers of the sensory tunic. Define: blind spot; optic disc.
101.Define: rods; cones; bipolar cells; ganglion cells.
102.Define the following with respect to the eyeball: posterior segment; anterior segment; vitreous humor; aqueous humor; canal of Schlemm.
103.Describe the structure and tissue composition of the lens.
104.What is the cause of: glaucoma; cataracts.
105.Detail the path of light through the eye to the photoreceptors. Which structures refract light rays in the eye?
106.Describe accomodation of the eyeball for close vision.
107.What is the composition of the visual pigments of rods & cones. What are the 3 colors of cones?
108.Describe: activation of photoreceptors; light adaptation; dark adaptation.
109.Detail the pathway to the brain for sensory detection of vision. Where is the cortical area for processing this information?
The Ear: Hearing & Balance
110.Define: outer ear; auricle; external auditory canal.
111.Where is the tympanic membrane located? What is its function?
112.Define: middle ear; malleus; incus; stapes; auditory tube.
113.Define: oval window; round window; perilymph; endolymph.
114.Describe the structure of the inner ear.
115.Give the structure & general function of the following: vestibule; semicircular canals; cochlea.
116.Describe the transmission of sound waves through the ear (outer to inner ear)
117.Where are the hearing receptors located? Describe the activation of hearing receptors.
118.Detail the pathway to the brain for sensory detection of sound. Where is the cortical area for processing this information?
119.Where are the receptors for static equilibrium located? What types of movements do they respond to? Briefly describe these cells & their activation.
120.Where are the receptors for dynamic equilibrium located? What types of movements do they respond to? Briefly describe these cells & their activation.
121.Detail the pathway to the brain for sensory detection of equilibrium. Where is the cortical area for processing this information?